What Is The Good Life? A Brief Survey of Various Philosophies for Living
Peter Ruszel
Abstract
In every human being’s life on Earth there comes a time when they ask: what is the meaning of my life and humanity in general? In this presentation, I will explore various teleological theories and approaches to this big question in hope of providing new ways of living and finding purpose in one’s own life. By looking through various philosophies—like Aristotelianism, Stoicism, Epicureanism, and Existentialism—then relating them to my own lived experience, I hope there is something to gain for anyone at any stage of life.
Keywords: meaning, purpose, teleology, human nature, living, well-being, happiness, Aristotelianism, Stoicism, Epicureanism, Existentialism
What Is The Good Life? A Brief Survey of Various Philosophies for Living
Philosophers, poets, and musicians alike have discussed what it takes to live a good life for centuries. You may have heard of a thousand different pieces of advice throughout the course of your life. Underlying any practical wisdom, every person maintains a philosophy that grounds all of their beliefs and actions, which I call a philosophy of living. A philosophy of living answers two fundamental questions: what does it mean to be human and what is the purpose of human life. It is important for every person to search for answers to these questions in order to live a good life, as our sense of meaning and purpose is very closely connected to our well-being by influencing our relationships, career, worldview, and more. While there are many different answers to these quintessential questions of life, I will explore a few major philosophies: namely Aristotelianism, Epicureanism, Stoicism, and Existentialism, all of which have provided me with insights that have improved my own life and well-being. As a survivor of a nearly-fatal car accident, I was forced to confront these questions viscerally, and I will share the lessons I have learned from pursuing answers through philosophy.
Aristotle’s Theory of Causality
One way of understanding big questions such as “why am I here?” and “what is my purpose?” is to utilize Aristotle’s theory of causality. In his Metaphysics, Aristotle identified four fundamental causes: the material cause (as in the material something is made of), the formal cause (explained as “the account of what-it-is-to-be,” like its shape or form), the efficient cause (the entity that brings forth such thing into being), and the final cause (or “the end, that for the sake of which a thing is done”) (Falcon, 2019). For every human being, two of the four causes have a fairly straightforward explanation: your mother (the efficient cause) created you out of carbon-based organic matter (the material cause). However the other two causes, the formal cause and the final cause, lead into interesting directions. Describing the formal cause of a person is providing an account of human nature and what it means to be human. Meanwhile, a description of a person’s final cause imposes some teleological theory (a theory of purpose) or ethical theory explaining what humans live for and what they are supposed to do. Every philosophy of living therefore aims to explain some aspect of mankind’s formal or final cause.
According to Aristotle, the final cause or purpose of living is for happiness. He argues, by tracing back the reasons behind each of our actions we would ultimately find the goal of attaining happiness, which he defines as a kind of flourishing rather than a mental state. In his work The Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle explains, “happiness above all else appears to be absolutely final, since we always choose it for its own sake and never as a means to something else… no one chooses happiness for the sake of honour, pleasure, etc., nor as a means to anything other than itself,” and therefore happiness, Aristotle says, is “the end at which all actions aim” (Aristotle cited in Rackham, 1996, 1097a21–b12). It is important to recognize, however, that happiness has many different definitions, and Aristotle’s definition of happiness is by no means definitive for everyone. Regardless of whether or not you accept Aristotle’s conclusion that happiness is indeed the final goal of living, simply asking the question, “what am I ultimately living for?” is essential for living a good life.
Epicurus’ Notion of Happiness
Another prominent philosopher who saw happiness as the purpose of living was Epicurus. Epicurus based his definition of happiness on a fundamental aspect of human nature, the desire to seek pleasure and avoid pain. As reported by Diogenes, Epicurus defined happiness as “freedom from physical pain and mental anxiety” (Konstan, 2005). Abiding by this principle, then, why shouldn’t we just use drugs like painkillers and marijuana all of the time in order to be constantly free from pain and anxiety? In her chapter titled “Prudence and it’s Limits” author Catherine Wilson (2019) explains, “Epicurus reminds us that the pursuit of small pleasures now can bring on severe pains later, while the endurance of certain pains now can bring on more pleasures down the road. I need to choose and avoid prudentially, in view of the long-term effects of actions that are readily foreseeable” (p. 56). To give an example, the short-term pleasure of eating candy may come with the long-term pain of Type 2 diabetes. Conversely, long-term pleasures like strength come from short-term pains like lifting weights. Understanding this insight into happiness can be very helpful for improving and maintaining one’s well-being.
Stoic View of Living
Along with Aristotle and Epicurus, another valuable philosophy born in Ancient Greece is Stoicism. One famous Stoic philosopher named Seneca wrote a short work titled De Brevitate Vitae, translated as On the Shortness of Life. As the title implies, Seneca addresses the common notion that life is short. He writes,
You live as if you were destined to live forever, no thought of your frailty ever enters your head, of how much time has already gone by you take no heed. You squander time as if you drew from a full and abundant supply, though all the while that day which you bestow on some person or thing is perhaps your last (Basore, 1932, Ch. 3).
In this passage, Seneca reveals a crucial insight into human nature, which is that we do not often confront our own morality. Many people fear death and avoid thinking about it at all. Like many young people, I did not think much about my own death as I assumed that it would happen some 80 or so years in the future. That was until my near-death experience of being in a car accident. Confronting death in such a visceral way, where one moment I was in a car and the next moment I was in a hospital, has taught me to be grateful for the present moment, recognizing that tomorrow is never guaranteed. I also try to apply this lesson in how I treat others by always trying to leave a positive impression because, as Seneca points out, I may not know when it will be the last time I see them. Shifting focus away from death and back to living, I certainly do not think it is healthy to live every day as if it were your last. The central lesson Seneca offers is that, “it is not that we have a short space of time, but that we waste much of it” (Seneca cited in Basore, 1932, Ch. 1). Incorporating this lesson from Stoicism into your own philosophy of living could greatly enrich your daily life and well-being as it has for me.
Existentialism, An Alternate Solution to Aristotle’s Teleology
Continuing on, there is another more modern philosophy called Existentialism which provides an alternate solution to Aristotle’s teleology. Existentialism refutes the idea that there is any final cause imbued within mankind. The famous existentialist philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre explains, “man is not only that which he conceives himself to be, but that which he wills himself to be, and since he conceives of himself only after he exists, just as he wills himself to be after being thrown into existence, man is nothing other than what he makes of himself” (Macomber, 2007, p. 22). Sartre’s philosophy can be very liberating and empowering for people no matter their circumstances. Each person has the ability to create their own sense of meaning and purpose based on their own lived experiences. Their meaning and purpose can also evolve throughout the course of their life as they learn and grow. As an example, my own sense of meaning and purpose was rattled dramatically after my traumatic brain injury from a car accident. Since then, I have been fortunate to recover from that and eventually discover new sources of meaning from philosophy and teaching. All in all, Existentialism can provide a flexible solution to mankind’s final cause or purpose, as each person is able to create their own meaning for themselves.
Answers from Science
After discussing these various philosophies, I will lastly address any scientific explanations of mankind’s purpose or nature in terms of its biology, physiology, or psychology. I believe the answers to such fundamental aspects of life cannot be found in terms of empirical facts, but rather in terms of dialogue, reflection, and experience in the world. Living in the world is a unique subjective experience wholly different in quality from the world as described by data. A person’s beliefs, desires, experiences, and memories cannot be quantified or measured. Thus, any scientific understanding of mankind is quite different from a philosophy of mankind. Jewish philosopher Abraham Joshua Heschel (1965) explains, “what man seeks to understand is not his animality but his humanity. He is not in search of his origin, he is in search of his destiny” (p. 22). As Heschel suggests we need to search for a deeper, more philosophical question than: why do humans reproduce or how do they function. We should rather ask: once a person is born, who do they become and why? Philosophers have been debating these difficult questions for centuries, long before modern science arrived, which goes to show how crucial they can be for our lives and well-being.
Concluding Remarks
In conclusion, it should be clear that finding a philosophy of living for one’s own life requires a significant amount of time and consideration. In order to find the time and space required to be introspective we need to thwart the endless cycle of consumption and stimulation put before us. While philosophers can provide clues and guidance, ultimately each person must choose their own philosophy of living. Here I provided insights from major philosophical traditions like Aristotelianism, Stoicism, Epicureanism, and Existentialism which have helped me develop my own philosophy of living and have improved my own well-being. It is important for every person to search for answers to these questions in order to live a good life, as our sense of meaning and purpose is very closely connected to our well-being, by influencing our relationships, career, worldview, and more. We are often forced to rediscover our sense of meaning and purpose during times of hardship, as I had after my near-death experience. However, in looking back on that car accident I was in, I can genuinely say that I am thankful it happened because of the lessons I have learned and the appreciation for living I have gained.
References
Aristotle (1996). The Nicomachean Ethics (H. Rackham, Trans.). Wordsworth Editions Limited.
(Original work published ca. 340 BCE).
Falcon, A. (2019). Aristotle on Causality, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2019
Edition). plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/aristotle-causality
Heschel, A. J. (1965). Who Is Man?. Stanford University Press.
Konstan, D. (2005). Epicurus. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2018 Edition).
plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2018/entries/epicurus.
Sartre, J. (2007). Existentialism Is a Humanism. (C. Macomber, Trans.). Yale University Press.
(Original work published 1946).
Seneca (1932), On the Shortness of Life (J. W. Basore, Trans.). Loeb Classical Library London.
(Original work published ca. 49 CE).
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Reflections 